1.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.
2. Vocabulary refers to the sum total of all the words in a language. In other words, vocabulary is composed of words and words make up vocabulary. If we compare vocabulary to a family, words are family members.
3. Sound is the physical aspect of a word and meaning is what the sound refers to. Sound and meaning are not intrinsically related and their collection is arbitrary and conventional. For example, tree/tri:/ means 树 in English because the English-speaking people have agreed to do so just as Chinese people use/shù/(树) to refer to the same thing. This explains why people of different languages use different sounds to express the same concept. However, in the same languages, the same sound can denote different meanings, e.g. /rait/ can mean right, rite, and write. 4. There are generally four major causes of the differences between sound and form.⑴There are more phonemes than letters in English, so there is no way to use one letter to represent one phoneme.⑵The stabilization of spelling by printing, which breaks the synchronized change of sound and spelling. ⑶influence of the work of scribes, who deliberately changed the spelling of words and ⑷borrowing, which introduces many words which are against English rules of pronunciation and spelling.
5 .Early scribes changed the spelling of many words while copying things for others because the original spelling forms in cursive writing were difficult for people to recognize, such as sum, cum, wuman, munk and so on. Later, the letter u with vertical lines was replaced with o, resulting in the current spelling forms like some, come, woman, monk. The changed spelling forms are more distinguishable to readers. 6. Words of the basic word stock form the common core of the English language. They are the words essential to native speakers’ daily communication. Such words are characterized by all national character, stability, polysemy, productivity and collocability.
7. a. loose woman b. fellow c. pistol d. great e. coward
f. fight g. police h. drunk i. woman j. girl
8. haply = perhaps albeit= although methinks = it seems to me eke= also smooth= truth morn= morning troth= pledge ere= before
quoth = said hallowed= holy billow= wave/ the sea bade= bid
9. Neologisms refer to newly-coined words or old words with new meanings. For example, euro(欧元),e-book(电子书),SARS(非典), netizen (网民), are newly-coined words. Words like mouse(鼠标),web(网络),space shuttle(航天飞机) etc. are old words which have acquired new meanings.
10. By notion, words fall into content words and functional words. Content words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverds and numerals, which have clear notions; whereas functional words are void of notions but are mainly used to connect content words into sentences. Content words are numerous and changing all the time, while functional words are small in number and stable. But functional words have much higher frequency in use than content words.
11. Native words form a small portion of the English vocabulary, but they make up the mainstream of the basic word-stock which belongs to the common core of the English language. Compared with most loan-words, native words are mostly essential to native speakers’ daily communication and enjoy a much higher frequency in actual use.
12. Denizens Aliens Translation loans Semantic loans kettle confrere chopsticks dream
die pro patria black humour skirt parvenu long time no see wall Wunderkind typhoon husband Mikado 第二章
1. The Indo-Europe Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world. It is made up of the languages of Europe , the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European Language Family have different degrees of influence on English vocabulary . A knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately. 2.Indo-European Language Family
Balto-Slavic (Lithuanian,Prussian, Polish, Slavenian, Russian, Bulgarian) Indo-Iranian (Hindi, Perian) Celtic (Breton, Scottish, Irish)
Italic(Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Roumanian) Hellenic(Greek)
Germanic(English, Swedish, German, Norweigian, Icelangic, Danish, Dutch)
3.The vocabularies of the three periods differ greatly from one anther. Old
English has (1) a small vocabulary (50 000—60 000), (2) a small number of borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian only and (3) the words full of endings. Middle English has (1) a comparatively large vocabulary, (2) a tremendous number of foreign words from French and Latin and (3) word endings leveled. Modern English has (1) a huge and heterogeneous vocabulary, (2) tremendous borrowings and (3) words with lost endings. Yes, we can divide the developments in other ways, for example, Old English period can be called Anglo-Saxon period. And Middle English might start from 1066, the time of Norman Conquest. But in doing so, the logical continuation of thee three phases of the original division is lost. 4. It is receptivity and adaptability of the English language that make it possible for English to borrow heavily from other major languages of the world, so that the English vocabulary eventually has become heterogeneous.
5. The popularity of English lies in the fact that English is ready to borrow from other languages and to adapt itself to new situations and new developments, that it has accepted elements from all other major languages and that it has simple reflection and a relatively fixed word order. All these make the language comparatively easy to learn and to use. 6. course human events necessary people
dissolve political connected assume powers separate equal station nature entitle decent
respect opinions requires declare causes impel separation
From the words picked out, we can see that most of the content words are either of Greek or Latin origin. What we left are mostly functional words. This shows that Greek and Latin play a very important part in the English vocabulary.
7. Latin borrowing can be divided into four phase: (1)
Pre-Anglo-Saxon period,(2)Old English period, (3) middle English period and(4) Modern English period. Borrowings in the first period are mainly common words such as wall, wine, kettle and so on; words borrowed in the second period are mainly religious terms such as candle, nun, church; the third period saw word borrowed often via French such as frustrate, history, infancy and so on and in the forth period Words borrowed from Latin are usually abstract formal terms like status ,nucleus , minimum. 8. eventful [Latin + English] hydroplane [Greek +Latin ] Falsehood [Latin +English ] pacifist [Latin +Greek ] Saxophone [German +Greek ] heirloom [French +English ] Joss house [Portuguese +English ] television [Greek + Latin ] 9. amateur (late) finace (late) Empire (late) peace (early) Courage (early) garage (late) Judgement (early) chair (early)
Chaise (late) grace (early) Servant (early) routine (late) Jealous (early) savate (late) Genre (late) gender (early) Debut (late) morale (late) State (early) chez (late) Ballet (late)
10. Jespersen’s comment reveals the importance of Scandinavian words in English. Just as people cannot live without bread and eggs, so English language cannot operate properly without Scandinavian words. 11. allegro f . 轻快 Alto i. 女低音 Andante j 行板 Crescendo b.渐强 Diminuendo g. 渐弱 Forte e.强 Largo d.缓慢 Piano h. 轻 Pianoforte a.轻转慢 Soprano c.女高音
12. cherub（Hebrew） chipmunk(American Indian ) Chocolate(Mexican ) coolie(Hindi)
Cotton (Arabic) jubilee (Greek) Lasso (Spanish) loot (Hindi) Sabbath (Hebrew) shampoo (Hindi) Snorkel (German) tamale (Mexican) Tepee (American) tulip (Turkish) Voodoo (African) kibitz (German) Wok (Chinese) sauerbraten (German)
13. a.alligator b.loco c.rodeo d..bonanza e.igloo f.blitzkrieg g.wigwam h.canoe i.hurricane j.boomerang k.poncho
14. the characteristics of the contemporary vocabulary can be summarized as follows: (1) the vocabulary is huge in size and heterogeneous; (2) it has tremendous borrowings from all other major languages of the world; (3) the words have lost their endings; (4) it is growing swiftly by means of word-formation because of the development of science and technology, social, economic and political changes and influence of other cultures and languages.
15. the major modes of vocabulary development of contemporary are
creation, that is by means of word-formation; semantic change, adding new meanings to old words; borrowing words from other language and revival of old-fashioned words, which has a insignificant role. 第三章
1.a.morpheme b.allomorph c.bound morpheme d.free morpheme e.affix f.inflectional affix g.derivational affix h.root i.stem j.base
2. inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end of words to denote grammatical concepts such as –s(-es), -ed, -ing and –est (to show superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes and suffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un-, -tion, -er, -ness and so on.
Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and Was; lexical morphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixes and suffixes 3. Individualistic
individualist + ic [stem , base]
individual + ist [stem, base ] individu + al [stem, base ] in + dividu [root, stem, base ]
undesirables
un +desirable [stem, base ] desir + able [root, stem, base ]
free morpheme =free root 4. morpheme{
Bound root
bound morpheme { inflectional affix affix
{ prefix
derivational affix {
suffix
第四章
Enumerate the three important means of word formation and explain their respective role in the expansion of English vocabulary.
The three means of word formation are affixation ,which creates 30% to 40% of the total number of new words ;compounding ,which brings 28%
to 30% of all the new words.;and conversion ,which provides English with 26% of the new words. Affixation
1.Affixation,also called derivation,is the formation of new words by adding affixes to stems.Affixation Includes prefixation and suffixation according to the types of Affixes used to forms new words.
2.Prefixation is to create new words by adding prefixes to base while suffixation makes new words by adding suffixes to base.
3.Generally speaking,prefixes do not change part of speech of base but only modify their meaning whereas suffixes do change part of speech but seldom modify the meaning of bases.
4.The best way to classify prefixes is on the basis of meaning because prefixes only change the meaning of bases in general. 5. non-smoker incapable impractical disobey insecurity irrelevant immature inability/disability unofficially unwillingness illegal disagreement illogical disloyal inconvenient non-athletic
6. harden horrify modernize memorize falsify apologize deepen glorify sterilize
lengthen intensify beautify fatten sympathize a. apologize b. beautify d. sympathized g. memorizing 7. a. employee
d. waitress g. pianist
c. lengthening
e. to fatten f. falsify/harden
h. Sterilize
c. participant
f. teacher
b. politician
e. conductor
h. examinee/examiner
8.
trans- = across: transcontinental, trans-world mono- = one: monorail, monoculture
super- = over, above: superstructure, supernatural auto- = self: autobiography, automobile sub- = bad, badly: malpractice, malnutrition mini- = little, small: minicrisis, miniwar pre- = before: prehistorical, preelection ex- = former: ex-teacher, ex-filmer Compounding
1. The three criteria are(1)stress pattern, that is, stress in a compound falls on the first element but on the second in a free phrase, e.g. '- -(compound), - ' -(free phrase);(2)meaning, that is, the meanings of a compound is usually not the combination of the meaning of the
component parts, but the free phrase is, e.g. hot line(compound: busy line),hot potato(free phrase: potato which is hot);(3)grammatical unity, that is, the different elements form a grammatical unit, which does not allow internal change, e.g. easy chair(compound: a special arm chair),easier chair(free phrase: a less easy chair).
However, every rule has expectations. The same is true of the criteria. Three are examples against each of the three rules. 2. heartbeat [S + V]
brainwashing [V + O]
baking powder [ adv+n.] dog-tired [adv + adj] love-sick [adv + adj]
movie-goer [place + V.-er] far- reaching [Adv+v.-ing] lion-hearted [adv + n.-ed]
boyfriend [S + complement] snap decision [V + O] on-coming [adv+v] light-blue [adj + adj]
peace-loving [V +O]
easy chair [ adj+ n]
tax-free [adv +adj]
goings-on [V +adv]
Whereas conversation is the derivation of new words by adding zero affixes, such as single(adj.)→single(v.）.
3. There are two ways to form verb compounds. For example, first name (v. from first name) and honeymoon (v. from honeymoon) are words created by means of conversion: words such as proofread (v. from proofreading) and chain-smoke (v. from chain smoker) are formed by means of backformation.
4.well-bred 有教养的 well-behaved 守规矩的 culture-bound 含文化的 homebound 回家的 needle work 针织品 homework 家庭作业 praiseworthy 值得表扬的 respectworthy 值得尊敬的 bar-woman 吧女 sportswoman 女运动员 nationwide 全国的 college-wide 全校的 clear-minded 头脑清晰的 strong-minded 意志坚强的 military-style 军事风格的 newstyle 新款 self-control 自制 self-respect 自尊 budget-related 有预算的 politics-related 与政治相关的 water-proof 防水 fire-proof 防火 once-fashionable 曾经流行的 once-powerful 曾经强大的 news-film 新闻片 news-letter 时事通讯 mock-attack 演习 mock-sadness 假悲伤 sister-in-law 嫂/弟媳妇 father-in-law 岳父/公公 home-baked 自家烤的 home-produced 自制的 half-way 半途的/半路的 half-done 半生不熟的 ever-lasting 永久的 ever-green 常青的 age-conscious 年龄敏感的 status-conscious 身份敏感的 campus-based 以校园为基地的 market-based 基于市场的 Conversion
1.conversion is the formation of new words by turning words of one part
of speech to those of another part of speech. The term functional shift reveals the actual function of conversion,i.e.change of the functions of words.the term zero-derivation approaches conversion from the perspective of derivation because it is a way of deriving new words by adding zero affixes,hence zero derivation.
2.Although both are called derivation ,suffixation is the derivation of new words by adding suffixes to bases,such as simple (adj.)→simplify（v.) G.modernizing h.sterilize
7. a.employees b.politician c.participants D.waitress e.conductor f.teacher
G.pianist h.examinee,examiner 8.trans-=across:transcontinental,trans-world 9.Mono-=one:monorail,monoculture
10.Super-=over,above:superstructure,supernatural 11.Auto-=self:autobiography,automobile 12.Sub-=below:subculture,subconscious 13.Mal-=bad,badly:malpractice,malnutrition 14.Mini-=little,small:minicrisis,miniwar 15.Pre-=before:prehistorical,preelection 16.Ex-=former:ex-teacher,ex-filmer
3 The classes most frequently involved in conversation are nouns and verbs.
4 Verbs converted to nouns usually are related to the original verbs in six different ways.The new nouns converted from verbs refer to （1）state of mind or sensation,e.g .desire(state of desiring); (2) event or activity ,e.g.swim (the activity of swimming );(3) result of the action,e.g. buy (the result of buying);(4) doer of the action,e.g.bore (the person whom bores); (5) tool or instrument ,e,g, paper (doing something with paper ) and (6) place,e.g. turn(the place of turning).
Nouns converted to verbs are generally related to the original nouns in sever different ways . The new verbs usually mean (1) to put in or on the noun,e. g. peel (to remove the peel from );(4) to do with the noun,e.g. Shoulder (to do something with shoulder); (5) to be or act as the noun,e. g. tutor (to be the tutor) ;(6) to make or change into the noun, e.g. cash (7) to send or go by the noun ,e. g. ship (to send by ship).
5. When adjectives are converted into nouns ,some are completely changed ,thus known as full conversation, and others are partially changed ,thus known as partial conversion.Adjectives which are fully converted can achieve a full noun status, i. e. having all the characteristics of nouns .That means they can take a / an shorts ,finals.Adjectives which are partially converted still keep adjective features.They should always be used with the ,and they cannot take -s/-es
to show plural forms.Moreover ,the words can have comparative or superlative degrees: the poor ,the poorer ,the young, the very unfortunate. 6. The changes occasionally involved are (1) change of spelling accompanied by pronunciation ,e. G. Life/laIf/→live/liv/ , breath /breɚ/→breathe /bri:ỏ/ and blood /blʌ d/→ bleed / bli:d/ ;(2) change of pronunciation and stress ,e. g. use . n /ju :s / → use v. / ju:z / and permit n. /'p :mit/→ v. /p 'mit / and so on.
7. a .stomach 【n.→v.】 b. Room 【n.→ v.】 c. wolf [n → v]
d. come/go [v → n] e. familiar [a → n] f. innocent [a → n] g. flat [a → n] h. ah/ ouch [int → v] i. warm [a → n]
j. has-been/might-have-been [finite v → n] k. Hamlet [proper n → v] l. buy [v → n] m. smooth [a → v]
Blending motel humint
(motor + hotel) 汽车旅馆
(human + intelligence) 情报
advertisetics (advertisement + statistics) 广告统计学 psywarrior (psychological warrior) 心理战专家 hoverport (hovercraft + port) 气垫船码头 chunnel hi-fi
(channel + tunnel) 海峡隧道
(high + fidelity) 高保真音响
cinemactress (cinema + actress) 女电影演员 Clipping
copter (helicopter)
front clipping
dorm (dormitory) back clipping lab (laboratory)
back clipping
prefab (prefabricated house) phrase clipping gas (gasoline) back clipping prof (professor) back clipping scope (telescope)
champ (champion)
front clipping back clipping
sarge (sergeant) back clipping
mike (microphone) ad (advertisement)
back clipping back clipping
tec (detective) front and back clipping Acronymy
1. Yes, there is a difference between them. The difference lies in the
formation and pronunciation. Initialisms are formations pronounced letter by letter, e.g. UFO(unidentified flying object), BBC(British Broadcasting Corporation), VIP(very important person) and acronyms are formed to conform to the rule of spelling and pronunciation, that is, the words look and sound like ordinary words, e.g. AIDS/eidz/(acquired immune deficiency syndrome), MAD(mutually assured destruction), radar(radio detecting and ranging).
2. kg =kilogram ft=foot cf =confer cm=centimeter $=dollar ibid = ibidem etc. = et cetera VIP=very important person OPEC=Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries TOEFL=test of English as a foreign language 3. a. SALT b. radar c. AIDS d. BASIC e. Laser f. WHO g. sonar h. G-man
Backformation
1. It is true that both are means of making new words by removing the end part of the words . But they have differences . For a
back-formed word , what is removed is the supposed suffix ,e.g. auth------author , donate------donation , loaf-----loafer , the forms –-or,--ion , --er coincide with the their suffixes . For back clipping , however , what is removed is usually different from the existing suffixes ,e.g. ad------advertisement , gas-------gasoline , exam------examination , etc.
2. Lase (laser) escalate(escalator)
Babysit (babysitter) peeve (peevish) Orate (orator) commute (commuter)
Communization of proper names
a. Tantalize -------Tantalus : to tease or torment by keeping sth. wanted out of reach b. Argus-eyed--------Argus : to be extremely watchful
c. narcissim--------Narcissus : excessive admiration of oneself or one’s appearance d. sabotage-------Sabots : (1) to destroy or damage deliberately (2) deliberate damage or destruction
e. martinet--------Martinet : strict /stern (military) trainer f . yahoo-------Yahoo : a lout or ruffian
g. Shylock--------Shylock : a ruthless money lender
h. hovering-------Hoover : cleaning by using a vacuum cleaner
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