复试翻译理论
一． Explain the following terms in English
(1) literal translation and free translation
(1) Literal translation（直译）is so-called “word-for-word” translation. It, superficially
speaking, means \"not to alter the original words and sentences\"; strictly speaking, it strives \"to keep the sentiments and style of the original\".
(2) Free translation（意译）(sense-for-sense translation) is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation.
(3) Examples:
It rains cats and dogs.
下猫下狗
大雨滂沱
Do you see any green in my eye?
看见我眼睛中有绿色吗？
你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗?
A burned child dreads the fire.
烧伤的孩子害怕火。
一朝被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。
To kill two birds with one stone.
一石二鸟
一箭双雕
(2) Domestication（翻译的归化）and foreignization（翻译的异化）
① Domestication and foreignization are two strategies used in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture.
② Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text.
③ Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of target language to preserve its meaning.
For example: The English idiom “go to law for a sheep, you lose a cow” can be translated into the Chinese idiom “捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜” (domestication: The Chinese idiom loses massive cultural information in this translation). But in order to reflect the cultural custom that western people are accustomed to solving disputes through legal ways, it would be better to use the method of foreignization and the idiom should be translated like “为一只羊打官司，却损失了一头牛”.
(3) Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory of translation/functional equivalence
(1) A term used to refer to the type of equivalence reflected in a target language which seeks
to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced. It is a translation method in which the translator attempts to reflect the thought of the writer in the source language rather than the words and forms.
(2) According to Nida, it serves to “highlight the communicative function of
translating”.(1986)
(4) “Skopos theory”（目的论）in Germany
① The Skopos theory is an approach to translation which was put forward by Hans Vemeer and developed in Germany in the late 1970s and which emphasizes a more functional and socio-cultural concept in translation.
② Translation is considered not as a process of translation, but as a specific form of human action. The word “Skopos” was from Greek. It's used as the technical term for the purpose of translation.
③ In the frame work of this theory, one of the most important factors determining the purpose of a translation is the address, who is the intended receiver or audience of the target text with their world language. Every translation is directed at an intended audience. From this view, the status of the source is clearly much lower in Skopos theory than the equivalence theory.
(5) YanFu’s theory on translation
Yan Fu is known for the Triple Principle of Translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.
Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of “elegance” has aroused plenty of criticism because in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicting principles. Despite this, Yan’s translation theory is still popular in China.
[严复用“信、达、雅”概括了翻译活动要达到的标准。“信” 就是忠于原文；“达” 是文字表述要达意；“雅”是要有文采。]
(6) Fulei’s “spiritual resemblance”
(His idea emphasizes the subjectivity in translation.)
“以效果而论，翻译应该像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似”。 “理想的译文仿佛是原作者的中文写作”。 文字上要求 “译文必须为纯粹之中文，无生硬拗口之病”，并期以“行文流畅，用字丰富，色彩变化”。
(7) Qianzhongshu’s “conversion” aiming at “perfection” (transliteration)（化境）
“The highest ideal of literary translation is hua or sublimation, transforming a work from the language of one nation into that of another. If this could be done without betraying any evidence of artifice by virtue of divergences in language and speech habits, while at the same time preserving intact the favor of the original, then we may claim that such a performance has attained huajing or the ultimate of translation.”
(8) Essential qualities of a good translator
He or She should be qualified with such qualities as: a good command of language; a solid
foundation of cultural information of both source language and target language; a flexible mind; an inquisitive mind; a variety of interests; skill of short-hand; team-work; diligence; career-respect…
【基本素质：过硬的语言功底；文化背景知识；良好的写作技能；广泛的知识面；良好的工作习惯；出色的团队工作能力；敬业精神。】
(9) cultural elements in translation
When we translate a text, we have to pay much attention to cultural elements. Such elements as ideological, historical, customary, religious, aesthetic, geographical elements can greatly influence one’s translation process.
[思维方式的影响; 历史典故及风俗习惯的影响; 宗教传统的影响; 价值观念及审美观念的影响; 地域环境的影响。
(10) intercultural communication（跨文化交际）
Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them.
二1.What is the process of doing translation?
(1)理解和表达是翻译的两个主要步骤。译者对原文的正确理解在翻译过程中至关重要；译者的表达须具有准确力和表现力，语言须具有生动性和形式美。(2)分析原文就是细致处理词位的所指意义和联想意义、研究句法和语篇结构。理解和领会原文是从事无论何种翻译的基本功力。如果译者确实理解了原文的涵义，又能得心应手地驾驭译语，那么翻译就是一个很自然的驾轻就熟的过程。(3)翻译的过程可以简单分为：理解—表达—校核三个阶段，或理解—表达两个阶段。
(1)Understanding and expression serve as the two main steps when we do translation. The correct understanding to the source language by a translator is very crucial in the process of translation. The translator's expression must be accurate and expressive. And the language must be vivid and beautiful in form. (2)To analyze the source language means carefully handling its meaning, including associative meaning of word units and studying the syntax and passage structure. Understand and grasp the original is engaged in any translation of the basic capability. Understanding and comprehending the meaning of the text is fundamental to a translator. If a translator truly understands the meaning of the source language and is apt to take advantages of the translation theories, then the translation would be pretty easy.(3) The process of translation can be simply divided into three or two steps: understanding, expressing, checking, or just understanding, expressing.
2. What are the qualifications of being a translator?
1) A translator must be well acquainted with the source language. We are inclined to feel too confident of our comprehension when we are reading foreign literary works. We think we know it from A to Z, yet, when we start translating it we find it difficult and there are many points misunderstood.
一个译者必须很精通源语言。当我们阅读国外文学作品时，我们通常很自信于自己的理解能力。我们自以为完全读懂了文意，可是一旦开始翻译就会遇到障碍，才发现很多地方都理解错了。
2) A translator must be well acquainted with the target language. Let's take Yan Fu for instance: When Yan Fu, a famous translator in the Qing Dynasty, was translating \"Evolution and Ethics \title turned out to be the crux that caused him to cudgel his brains day and night and look pale for it, eventually had it translated into《天演论》which has since deserved high praise up till now.
一个好的译者必须很熟悉目标语言。让我们看一下关于严复的小实例。我国清朝著名的翻译家严复在翻译《天演论》时，题目的翻译成为攻克整篇文章的难关，严复绞尽脑汁、夜以继日地思考，甚至都日渐消瘦了。最终把题目定为《天演论》，一直到今天这个题目都为他们赢得了很高的评价。
3) A translator must be armed with necessary professional knowledge.
一个好的译者必须具备必要的专业知识。
4) A translator must be armed with the ability to live his part. As famous play writer Maryann pointed out: \"a translator must enter into the spirit of character (regard himself as one that plays a role in a play).
一个好的译者必须具备活出他的角色的能力。就像著名剧作家玛丽安说的：“一个好的译者必须能够进入到角色的精神层面（把自己当成话剧的一个角色）”。
5) A translator must be armed with the excellent ability of expressiveness and vivid imagination. \"Toiling yourself and endure hardship for obtaining a well-chosen word\" just as the famous poet Du Fu did \"Never give up until an amazing poetic masterpiece is gained\".
一个好的译者必须具备出色的表达力和生动的想象力。“为求一字稳，耐得五更寒” ，好的译者还需要像诗圣杜甫那样具有“语不惊人死不休”的精神与毅力。
3. Which famous translator do you know? And give us a brief introduction.
最著名的翻译家当首推严复。严复所译作品多系西方政治经济学说，如赫胥黎的《天演论》(Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays)，亚当•斯密的《原富》(An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations)，斯宾塞尔的《群己权界论》(On Liberty)、甄克斯的《社会通诠》(TheStudy of Politics)等、并提出简洁凝练的翻译标准“信、达、雅”(faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance) 。清林纾和他的
合作者以口述笔记的方式译了一百六十多部文学作品，其中最著名的有《黑奴吁天记》(Uncle Tom’s Cabin)，《块肉余生记》(David Copperfield)，《王子复仇记》(Hamlet)等（现用新译名）。
4. What theories of translation have you learned? Please expound some of them.
泰特勒（Tytler,1748-1814）的翻译理论和思想主要见于《论翻译的原则》一书。该书是西方翻译理论的第一部专著，在书中，泰特勒提出了著名的翻译三原则：1、译文应完整地再现原文的思想内容(That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.)； 2、译文的风格、笔调应与原文的性质相同(That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.)；3、译文影响原文一样流畅(That the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.)。
5. What translation techniques do you know? Give us some examples.
1. 直译与意译（Literal translation and Free translation）3.增译（amplification）5.逆向翻译inverse translation
2. 归化和异化（domestication and foreignization）4.补译compensation
7. How do you understand Yanfu’s three criterions of translation: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance ?
“Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, the three-character criterion raised by Yan Fu has been the heatedly-discussed topic for a long time. Based on the analysis of the potential meanings of the three characters, the relationship among them is identified. Faithfulness means that one should translate the source language faithfully, and expressiveness requires that the source language should be translated smoothly or fluently. While the elegance means gracefulness.
8. How do you understand translation?
Translation, speaking, implies rendering from one language into another of something written or spoken. It is, essentially the faithful representation, in one language of what is written or spoken in another. It is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL-the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL-target language).
翻译，说起来其实是指把一种语言翻译成另一种口头或书面的文字。在这个语言转换的过程中，翻译的实质是对原来语言最忠诚的描绘。翻译是等价目标语言对其源语言的替换。
汉语版：
严复：字又陵，后改名复，字几道，汉族，福建侯官县人，近代著名的翻译家、教育家。翻译了《天演论》、创办了《国闻报》，系统地介绍西方民主和科学，宣传维新变法思想，将西方的自然科学知识介绍到中国，提出的“信、达、雅”的翻译标准，对后世的翻译工作产生了深远影响，是清末极具影响的资产阶级启蒙思想家，翻译家和教育家，是中国近代史上向西方国家寻找真理的“先进的中国人”之一。
信达雅：严复吸收了中国古代佛经翻译思想的精髓，并结合自己的翻译实践经验，在《天演论》译例言里鲜明地提出了“信、达、雅”的翻译原则和标准。“信”（faithfulness）是指忠实准确地传达原文的内容“达”（expressiveness）指译文通顺流畅“雅”（elegance）可解为译文有文采，文字典雅这条著名的“三字经”对后世的翻译理论和实践的影响很大，20世纪的中国译者都深受这三个字影响的。
《天演论》：是严复翻译英国生物学家赫胥黎的演讲，名为Evolution and Ethics and other Essays，英文书名直译应为《进化论与伦理学》。该书宣传了“物竞天择，适者生存”的观点，并于1897年12月在天津出版的《国闻汇编》刊出，产生极为深远的社会影响，该书也奠定了严复的思想地位。
林纾，近代文学家、翻译家。字琴南，号畏庐，别署冷红生，福建闽县（今福州市）人。代表翻译作
品《巴黎茶花女遗事》、《撒克逊劫后英雄传》等，是近代翻译作品最多的翻译家。
许渊冲，北京大学教授，翻译家。在国内外出版中、英、法文著译六十本，包括《诗经》、《楚辞》、《李白诗选》、《西厢记》、《红与黑》、《包法利夫人》、《追忆似水年华》等中外名著，是有史以来将中国历代诗词译成英、法韵文的惟一专家。1999年被提名为诺贝尔文学奖候选人。
三美论：许渊冲先生提出的翻译理论。即，意美，音美，形美。 第一，意美，译诗要和原诗保持同样的意义，以意动人;第二，音美，译诗要和原诗保持同样悦耳的韵律;第三，形美，译诗要和原诗保持同样的形式(长短、对仗)等。
尤金奈达：美国语言学家、翻译家、翻译理论家。1914年11月11日出生于美国俄克拉何马市。2011年8月25日在比利时布鲁塞尔与世长辞，享年96岁。最有影响的是1964出版的《翻译的科学探索》（Toward a Science of Translating），其次要数《翻译理论与实践》（The Theory and Practice of Translation）。
奈达理论的核心概念是“功能对等”。所谓“功能对等”，就是说翻译时不求文字表面的死板对应，而要在两种语言间达成功能上的对等。为使源语和目的语的之间的转换有一个标准，减少差异，尤金·A·奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了著名的“动态对等”翻译理论，即“功能对等”。在这一理论中，他指出，“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”(郭建中,2000 , P65)。奈达有关翻译的定义指明，翻译不仅是词汇意义上的对等，还包括语义、风格和文体的对等，翻译传达的信息既有表层词汇信息，也有深层的文化信息。“动态对等”中的对等包括四个方面：
1. 词汇对等；2. 句法对等；3. 篇章对等；4.文体对等。在这四个方面中，奈达认为，意义是最重要的，形式其次。
三．Translate the following into English
（1）食言(break one’s words，而不是eat one’s words)
（2）拖后腿(a hindrance to sb., 而不是pull one’s leg)
(3) 坚持不懈(to persist in)
（4）独具匠心(be original in design)
（5）山水风光(landscape)
（6）富丽堂皇(be luxuriant and grand)
（7）年轻气盛(be young and aggressive)
（8）最后时刻(at the eleventh hour)
（9）小心落水/脚下(mind your steps)
（10）贪官污吏(corrupt officials)
（11）见利忘为(forsake good for the sake of gold)
（12）前功尽弃(all my previous efforts come to nothing)
（13）班门弄斧(display one’s skills before an expert)
（14）饱经风霜(be weather-beaten)
（15）食在广州(Guangzhou is a paradise for gourmets)
（15）I can’t agree more.（我完全赞同.）
（16）请勿践踏草坪(keep off the grass)
（17）I have no opinion of him（我对他印象很差）
（18）Do you have a family?（你有孩子吗？）
（19）他每天风雨来雨里去，一年到头忙忙碌碌。(He is busy all the year round, rain or shine.)
（20）眼不见心不烦(out of sight, out of mind)
（21）某事在人，成事在天(man proposes, God disposes)
（22）眼见为实(Seeing is believing)
（23）三思而后行(Look before you leap)
（24）大智若愚(Still water runs deep)
（25）Nippon Point（立邦漆）、Carrefour（家乐福）
Goldlion（金利来）
（26）A diamond is forever.（钻石恒久远，一颗永远传）
（27）面对敌人，他脸不变色心不跳(He does not show the slightest fear and hear does not ever beat any faster.)
（28）沉鱼落雁之容，羞花闭月之貌(Her beauty would put the flowers to shame.)
三．翻译下列成语
1. 一箭双雕(to kill two birds with one stone) 2. 趁热打铁(to strike while the iron is hot)
3. 空中楼阁(a castle in the air) 4. 破釜沉舟(to burn the boat)
5. 如履薄冰(to be on the thin ice) 6. 一贫如洗(as poor as a church mouse)
7. 胆小如鼠(as timid as a rabbit) 8. 瓮中之鳖(like a rat in a hole)
9. 一丘之貉(birds of a feather) 10. 对牛弹琴(cast pearls before swine)
11. 爱屋及乌(love me, love my dog) 12. 健壮如牛(as strong as a horse)
13. 画蛇添足(drawing a snake and adding feet) 14. 毛遂自荐(to volunteer one’s service)
15. 初出茅庐(at the beginning of one’s career)
16. 东施效颦(crude imitation with ridiculous effect)
17. 南柯一梦(a pipe dream) 18. Catch-22 situation（不可逾越的障碍）
19. a Spartan look（简朴的外表） 20. a Trojan Horse（内奸、糖衣炮弹）
21. the heel of Achilles（致命的弱点）
22. Gordian Knots（难题、僵局=cut the Gordian knots快刀斩乱麻）
23. 一个是水中月，一个是镜中花(One is the moon reflected in the water, the other but a flower in the mirror)
24. 与时俱进(advance with times) 25. 袖手旁观(standing by with folded arms)
26. 画饼充饥(draw cakes to lessen hunger) 27. 大海捞针(look for a needle in the ocean)
28. 地大物博(vast territory and abundant resources)
29. 大同小异(largely identical but with minor differences)
30. 百花齐放百家争鸣(Let a hundred flowers bloom, a hundred schools contend)
31. 火上浇油(to pour oil on the flame) 32. 有其父必有其子(like father, like son)
33. 君子协定(a gentleman’s agreement) 34. 笨鸟先飞(An early bird catches the worm)
35. 好事不出门恶事行千里(Bad news spreads fast)
36. 出人头地（stand out） 37. 引狼入室(open the door to a dangerous person)
38. 逼上梁山(be forced to do sth.) 39. 节外生枝(New problems crop up unexpectedly)
40. 草木皆兵(a state of extreme nervousness)
41. 三十而立(A man should be independent at the age of thirty)
42. 本末倒置(put the cart before the horse)
43. 时不待我(Time and tide wait for no man)
44. 沧海一粟、九牛一毛(a drop in the bucket)
45. 不劳而获(No pains, no gains)
翻译理论：
1. 严复“信，达，雅” faithfulness, expressiveness and gracefulness
2. Eugene Nida “Dynamic Equivalence and Formal Equivalence”
Eugene A. Nida has been acclaimed as a pioneer of the linguistic approach to translation studies. His work became the basis upon which a new field of investigation in the 20th century ― the “science” of translation ― was founded. His main research interest lies in:
Bible translation
dynamic equivalence
Dynamic equivalence (also known as functional equivalence) attempts to convey the thought expressed in a source text (if necessary, at the expense of literalness, original word order, the source text's grammatical voice, etc.), while formal equivalence attempts to render the text word-for-word (if necessary, at the expense of natural expression in the target language). The two approaches represent emphasis, respectively, on readability and on literal fidelity to the source text. There is, however, in reality no sharp boundary between dynamic
and formal equivalence. Broadly, the two represent a spectrum of translation approaches.
3. New Mark “Communicative translation and Semantic translation”
纽马克原为中伦敦理工学院（现名西敏寺大学）现代语言学院翻译教授兼学院院长，主要从事德英互译理论和实践的教学，后执教于萨里大学。他对于翻译理论问题的见解大多反映在70至90年代期间发表的论文中，其中有些文章汇编成集，以《翻译问题探讨》（Approaches to Translation）作为书名于1981年出版。
• 交际翻译和语义翻译的区别：（1）交际翻译首先忠实于目标语和目标文本读者，即要求原语服从目标语言和文化，不给读者留下任何疑点与晦涩难懂之处；语义翻译则服从于源语文化和原作者，翻译原文本的语义，只在原文本的内涵意义构成理解障碍时才加以解释。（2）当信息内容和效果发生矛盾时，交际翻译重效果而不重内容，语义翻译则恰恰相反。
• （3）交际翻译通顺、简朴、清晰、直接、合乎习惯，并倾向于前额翻译，即遇到难译之词，便使用包罗万象的泛指词；语义翻译比交际翻译复杂、笨拙、具体、浓缩，重在再现原作者的思想过程而不是他的意图，倾向于超额翻译，即采用比原词意义更专的特指词。（4）交际翻译的译文通常比语义翻译的译文长，因为后者没有帮助理解的多余词语。（5）交际翻译是一门技巧，常可由多人承担；语义翻译是一门艺术，只能由一个人单独承担。
4. Tytler a British historian and linguist in the 18th century.
1. A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.
译文应该完全传达原文的意思
2. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the
original.
译文的风格和笔调应与原文的一致
3. A translation should have all the ease of the original composition.
译文应像原文一样流畅
5. 温努提 (Venuti 1995) 的异化翻译 (foreignizing translation) 与归化翻译 (domesticating translation)。
异化翻译法（或异化法）（Foreignizing Translation or Minoritizing Translation）和归化翻译法（或归化法）（Domesticating Translation or Domestication）是美国翻译理论家Lawrence Venuti（1995）创造的、用来描写翻译策略的两个术语。异化翻译法是故意使译文冲破目的语常规，保留原文中的异国情调。Venuti把异化翻译法归因于十九世纪德国哲学家Schleiermacher的翻译论说“译者尽量不惊动原作者，让读者向他靠近” (Schleiermacher 1838/1963: 47, 1838/1977:74; Venuti 1995: 19)。Schleiermacher本人是赞同采用异化法的。Venuti（1995: 20）指出，在盲目自大地使用单语、并把归化翻译法作为标准的文化社会（例如英美社会）中，应提倡异化翻译法。在这种情况下采用异化法，表明这是一种对当时的社会状况进行文化干预的策略，因为这是对主导文化心理的一种挑战。主导文化心理是尽力压制译文中的异国情调（或“异物”）。Venuti把异化翻译描述成一种“背离民族的压力”（1995: 20），其作用是“把外国文本中的语言文化差异注入目的语之中，把读者送到国外去”（1995：20）。 具体说来，异化翻译法包括以下特点：（1）不完全遵循目的语语言与语篇规范；（2）在适当的时候选择不通顺、艰涩难懂的文体；（3）有意保留源语中的实观材料或采用目的语中的古词语；（4）目的是为目的语读者提供一次“前所未有的阅读经验”（1995：20）。不过，Venuti 也承认，译文是用“本土的文化材料”组成的，异化翻译 [像归化翻译那样] 只能是翻译过程中的其中一种策略，不同的是，采用异化法的译者一般都态度鲜明，而不是隐隐匿匿（1995：34）。用异化法英译的典型例子包括庞德（Ezra Pound）的许多译作，纳巴科夫（Nabokov）（1964/1975）直译的名著普希金的诗体小说《尤金·奥涅金》(Eugene Onegin)
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